Pilgrims began celebrating Christmas Thursday in the birthplace of Jesus, but festivities were subdued against a backdrop of violence in the Holy Land and a growing jihadist threat across the Middle East.

In other parts of the Middle East, and in the world beyond, Christians were fearful for their future, and some even prohibited from celebrating the holy day.

In Bethlehem, the head of the Roman Catholic Church in the Holy Land arrived ahead of the traditional midnight mass at the Church of the Nativity, built over the site where Christians believe Jesus was born.

Travelling from Jerusalem nearby, the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem, Jordanian Fouad Twal, would have had to pass through the Israeli wall that separates the two cities, with Bethlehem located in the occupied West Bank.

A wave of violence has led to a sharp decline in pilgrims visiting Bethlehem and the rest of the Holy Land this year, and only a sparse crowd was on hand to welcome Twal's procession.

Violent protests and a wave of Palestinian attacks on Israelis since October have killed 129 Palestinians, 19 Israelis, an American and an Eritrean.

Many of the Palestinians have been attackers, while others have been shot dead by Israeli security forces during clashes.

Three more were shot dead in the West Bank, and another killed during clashes with Israeli forces at a refugee camp in the West Bank on Thursday.

Still, pilgrims who were at Manger Square in the heart of Bethlehem were proud to have made the trip.

It was "important to be here, to react and send a message of peace for Christmas," said an Italian nun, Sister Donatella, as she walked among a procession of pipers and drummers.

Linaras Oceani, a Christian Indonesian taking selfies, said she was not deterred by travel warnings from back home.

"God is with me, so all will be well," said the young woman, wearing sunglasses and a fur coat. She called herself "privileged, because not everyone has the opportunity to come here".

The mass commemorating the birth of Jesus will be dedicated to victims of violence and their families, Twal said, with celebrations "moderate" due to violence in the Palestinian territories, Israel and the world.

In his Christmas message earlier this month, Twal said "a deadly ideology based on religious fanaticism and obstinacy is spreading terror and barbarism amidst innocent people".

Twal has also called for parishes to switch off Christmas tree lights for five minutes in solidarity with victims of violence and terrorism. Lights on trees in Manger Square were shut off for a few minutes at 7 pm.

The mass is expected to be attended by religious leaders and dignitaries, including Palestinian president Mahmud Abbas.

At the Vatican, Pope Francis will celebrate mass at St Peter's Basilica.

In a recent sermon, he said: "Christmas is approaching... it's all a charade. The world continues to go to war."

His concerns were playing out in countries including Libya and Syria, where Christians have been threatened by the advance of Islamic State (IS) group.

In Iraq, the mood was sombre, as the dwindling Christian community trickled in to churches.

"We are praying for the restoration of peace and security and the return of the displaced to their land," said Farida, as she arrived at Our Lady of Salvation church in Baghdad.

She said 12 of her relatives lost their homes when IS took over Iraq's second city Mosul in 2014 and ordered Christians to convert to Islam, pay a heavy tax as second-class citizens or face death.

In Somalia, the government has banned celebrations of Christmas and New Year in the Muslim majority country, saying the festivities might attract Islamist attacks.

The same has happened in oil-rich Brunei, where the oil-rich country's authorities have threatened five-year jail sentences for those who violate a ban imposed on "open and excessive" celebrations.

And in the troubled nearby southern Philippines, seven Christian farmers were killed as Muslim guerrillas launched a series of attacks.

Meanwhile, the US and British embassies in China issued an unusual warning about possible threats against Westerners in a popular Beijing neighbourhood ahead of the Christmas holiday.

And security was due to be stepped up at churches in France for mass, following last month's jihadist attacks in Paris that left 130 people dead.

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